RULES OF SUCCESSFUL COMMUNICATION
1.Introduction:
Language is at the center of human life and it is a vital instrument for the exchange of ideas, experiences, emotions, and attitudes. This social instrument is used by human beings for communication. While people are communicating, they may have some problems. Although a given language has a series of grammatical rules to enable its speakers to communicate what they want to, grammar rules alone are not enough to ensure successful communication. Speakers of a language seem to obey additional rules to communicate successfully. The identification of those additional rules can be found in the studies of pragmatics. Pragmatics studies language with a reference to the users of the language and the situation in which language is used (Levinson,1987). In other words, pragmatics tries to explain aspects of meaning which can not be explained by grammatical rules of the language.
Aim of this paper is to give a brief explanation of the successful communication rules and to examine use and abuse of those rules in an excerpt from “Alice in wonderland” by Lewis Carroll. With respect to communication rules, cooperative principles formulated by Grice and the politeness principles developed by Brown and Levinson will be first explained briefly and then the analysis of the excerpt will be done. It is thought that the excerpt can be a good example of how cooperative principles and politeness principles are important in a conversation as the characters in the excerpt seem to suffer from unsuccessful communication.
2.How Do People Communicate Successfully?
Scholars in the field of pragmatics try to find the answer to this question by examining language in use in social context. Pragmatics studies how and why people successfully communicate with each other. Based on Grice’s and Levinson’s studies, there are rules that regulate and ensure successful communication.
According to Grice (as cited in MacManus, C. Et al. 1987 ) people obey certain rules in order to maintain communication. The cooperative principles are based on the assumption that language users unconsciously agree to cooperate to maintain the conversation by adhering to following maxims:
1. Maxims of quality( people say what they believe to be true.)
2. Maxims of relevance (people try to be relevant to what they intend to say and to whom an utterance is said to.)
3. Maxims of quantity ( people provide enough information.)
4. Maxims of manner ( people try to be clear, brief, present information in an orderly way, avoid ambiguity)
According to Brown and Levinson (1978), all human beings, in order to enter into social relationships with each other, must acknowledge the face of other people. Face refers to the respect that an individual has for him or herself, and maintaining that "self-esteem" in public or in private situations. Brown and Levinson (1978) argue that people both avoid intruding upon each other’s territory and also make the other person feel good on the assumption that the same will be done to them. Brown and Levinson (1978), who have studies politeness phenomena, suggest that the origin of politeness is the same in all societies although the specific nature of face varies from society to society. Differences can cause misunderstandings between people from different cultures.
Usually we try to avoid embarrassing the other person, or making them feel uncomfortable. Face Threatening Acts (FTA's) are acts that infringe on the hearers' need to maintain his/her self esteem, and be respected. Politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with these FTA's. There are four types of politeness strategies, described by Brown and Levinson, that sum up human "politeness" behaviour:
1. Bald On-Record: Making no effort to save hearers' face.Example: "Give me one of those!"
2. Positive Politeness: Trying to minimize the distance between interlocutors by expressing friendliness and interest in the hearer's need.Example: What a beautiful vase this is! Where did it come from?
3. Negative Politeness: You understand the need for politeness, but you also imply that you are imposing.Example: "I hope you don't mind, but can you open the window?"4. Off Record: Asking for something indirectly in an attempt not to take full responsibility for imposing.Example: "It's cold in here."
3.Analysis of an Excerpt from “Alice in Wonderland” by Lewis Carroll.
3.1. Analysis of the excerpt based on Grice’s cooperative principles.
Extract1:
Alice had been looking over his shoulder with some curiosity. What a funny watch! she remarked. It tells the day of the month, and doesn't tell what o'clock it is!
Why should it? muttered the Hatter. Does YOUR watch tell you what year it is?
Of course not, Alice replied very readily: but that's because it stays the same year for such a long time together.Which is just the case with MINE, said the Hatter.Alice felt dreadfully puzzled. The Hatter's remark seemed to have no sort of meaning in it, and yet it was certainly English. I don't quite understand you, she said, as politely as she could.
When Alice sees the Hatter’s watch she wanted to know why the watch does not tell what time it is. In our world, people have watches which tell the time but not the year, which is quite reasonable based on convenience. With respect to Hatter, it is useful for him to have a watch which tells years as he is trapped in tea-time. For him, only the years change. But when Alice asks why his watch does not tell the hours, he does not explain the reason. He just says “Which is just the case with MINE” . This remark is quite puzzling for Alice As Hatter does not provide Alice with necessary information. We can conclude that the hatter violates the maxims of quantity.
Extract2:
The table was a large one, but the three were all crowded together at one corner of it: No room! No room! they cried out when they saw Alice coming. There's PLENTY of room! said Alice indignantly, and she sat down in a large arm-chair at one end of the table.
Have some wine, the March Hare said in an encouraging tone.
Alice looked all round the table, but there was nothing on it but tea. I don't see any wine, she remarked.
There isn't any, said the March Hare.
Then it wasn't very civil of you to offer it, said Alice angrily.
Although there is not any wine on the table, the Hatter offers wine to Alice. Moreover, the Hatter uses an encouraging tone while offering wine. The hatter is openly violating the maxims of quality. He says what he does not believe to be true.
Extract3:
The Hatter opened his eyes very wide on hearing this; but all he SAID was, Why is a raven like a writing-desk?
Come, we shall have some fun now! thought Alice. I'm glad they've begun asking riddles.--I believe I can guess that, she added aloud. ....................
................. the conversation goes on but they do not talk about the riddle. They seem to forget about the riddle for a while but suddenly :
Have you guessed the riddle yet? the Hatter said, turning to Alice again.
No, I give it up, Alice replied: what's the answer?
I haven't the slightest idea, said the Hatter.
Nor I, said the March Hare.
By uttering the question “Have you guessed the riddle yet?”, the Hatter seems to violate the maxims of quality. Because, when the Hatter asks Alice if she has guessed the answer to the riddle, he seems to imply that there is an answer to the riddle. Based on this assumption, Alice asks what the answer is. If she had not had this assumption she would not have asked what the answer is. The Hatter and the Marchare are fooling Alice.
Extract4:
Suppose we change the subject, the March Hare interrupted, yawning. I'm getting tired of this. I vote the young lady tells us a story.
I'm afraid I don't know one, said Alice, rather alarmed at the proposal.
Then the Dormouse shall! they both cried. Wake up, Dormouse! And they pinched it on both sides at once.
The Dormouse slowly opened his eyes. I wasn't asleep, he said in a hoarse, feeble voice: I heard every word you fellows were saying.
Although, the Dormouse sleeps most of the time during the conversation he argues that he has not been sleeping. By saying this, he apparently violates the maxims of quality.
Extract5:
I didn't know it was YOUR table, said Alice; it's laid for a great many more than three.
Your hair wants cutting, said the Hatter. He had been looking at Alice for some time with great curiosity, and this was his first speech.
The Hatter violates the maxims of relevance by making an irrelevant comment about Alice hair. In normal condition, the Hatter would be expected to explain why the table belongs to the hatter, dormouse and the Marchare.
Extract6:
You should learn not to make personal remarks, Alice said with some severity; it's very rude.
The Hatter opened his eyes very wide on hearing this; but all he SAID was, Why is a raven like a writing-desk?
Come, we shall have some fun now! thought Alice. I'm glad they've begun asking riddles.--I believe I can guess that, she added aloud.
The Hatter violates the maxims of relevance. Because, he does not seems to care about what Alice says and he suddenly decides to ask a riddle. This verbal behaviour is quite irrelevant in this kind of conversation.
Extract7:
Come, we shall have some fun now! thought Alice. I'm glad they've begun asking riddles.--I believe I can guess that, she added aloud.
Do you mean that you think you can find out the answer to it? said the March Hare.
Exactly so, said Alice.Then you should say what you mean, the March Hare went on.I do, Alice hastily replied; at least--at least I mean what I say--that's the same thing, you know.
Not the same thing a bit! said the Hatter. You might just as well say that "I see what I eat" is the same thing as "I eat what I see"!
You might just as well say, added the March Hare, that "I like what I get" is the same thing as "I get what I like"!
You might just as well say, added the Dormouse, who seemed to be talking in his sleep, that "I breathe when I sleep" is the same thing as "I sleep when I breathe"!
As it is seen in this extract, the Hatter knows that Alice can not answer the riddle as it does not have an answer. When Alice says “I believe I can guess that” , the Hatter objects and demands further explanation from Alice. As In a way Alice violates the maxims of manner by saying an ambiguous sentence. The meaning of the sentence is not clear to Hatter. The hatter tries to negotiate the meaning of the Alice’s remark after a discussion of the meaning of the utterance, Alice also understood her mistake.
3.2. Analysis of the excerpt based on Brown and Levinson’s politeness principles
Extract8:
The table was a large one, but the three were all crowded together at one corner of it: No room! No room! they cried out when they saw Alice coming.
There's PLENTY of room! said Alice indignantly, and she sat down in a large arm-chair at one end of the table.
The Hatter and the Marchare do not want to have Alice at the table and they cry “ no room! No room!”. When we consider the way they impose their wants on Alice, they obviously do not make any effort to save Alice’s face. In other words they use bald on-record politeness strategy.
Extract9:
Suppose we change the subject, the March Hare interrupted, yawning. I'm getting tired of this. I vote the young lady tells us a story.
I'm afraid I don't know one, said Alice, rather alarmed at the proposal.
When the Marchare proposes that Alice can tell a story, Alice was alarmed as the Marchare impose on Alice and therefore threatens Alice positive face. She has to say no, which is quite difficult for her. Since she does not know what the creatures’ reaction is to her refusal. The conversation may end. Apparently she does not want the conversation to end as she is intrinsically a curious person and wants to know more about the creatures. The creatures does not care if the conversation ends or continues. Based on this, we can say that the Marchare uses bald on-record politeness strategy.
Extract10:
The Hatter shook his head mournfully. Not I! he replied. We quarrelled last March--just before HE went mad, you know-- (pointing with his tea spoon at the March Hare,) --it was at the great concert given by the Queen of Hearts, and I had to sing"Twinkle, twinkle, little bat!How I wonder what you're at!"You know the song, perhaps?
I've heard something like it, said Alice.
It goes on, you know, the Hatter continued, in this way:--"Up above the world you fly,Like a tea-tray in the sky.Twinkle, twinkle--"
The hatter tells about the song he had to sing at the great concert given by the Queen of Hearts and then he sings a part of the song. He then wants to know if Alice also knows the song. Although Alice does not seem to know the song she says she has heard something like it. By stating that she seems to use positive politeness strategy to minimize the distance between the creatures and her just for the sake of continuity of the conversation.
Extract11:
Why should it? muttered the Hatter. Does YOUR watch tell you what year it is?
Of course not, Alice replied very readily: but that's because it stays the same year for such a long time together.
Which is just the case with MINE, said the Hatter.
Alice felt dreadfully puzzled. The Hatter's remark seemed to have no sort of meaning in it, and yet it was certainly English. I don't quite understand you, she said, as politely as she could.
The Dormouse is asleep again, said the Hatter, and he poured a little hot tea upon its nose.
Alice states that she does not understand what the Hatter means by saying “Which is just the case with MINE”.
Alice’s utterance “ I do not quite understand” may be interpreted in two ways. She might be reporting about her mental state or she might be asking for further explanation. She gives two choices regarding the meaning of her utterance. By not asking for further explanation explicitly, she seems to using off-record politeness strategy in order not to threaten the Hatter’s face want. She may also avoid infringing on the Hatter’s territory in order to preserve her face as the Hatter could have been more impolite to Alice if she had had asked for further explanation.
4.Conclusion
My interest in the Alice’s adventures goes back to my high school years, but, more recently, as a graduate student studying sociolingistics, I rediscovered the enormous potential of the Alice books as illustrations of how our language system actually works. Especially, the excerpt I studied in this paper has a lot of examples that show that without obeying some rules, it is really impossible to have enjoyable conversations with others. When we look at the excerpt carefully we can feel the unease that Alice has had throughout her conversation with the Hatter, Dormouse and Marchare. In the end, she leaves because she can not stand the way that the creatures use language. In real life, we sometimes have communication breakdowns with certain people and we try to avoid having conversations with them. That may be because; those people do not obey the conversation conventions determined by human beings unconsciously.
References:
Brown, P. & Levinson S. C. ( 1978). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press.Levinson, S. C. (1987) Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press.
MacManus, C. Et al. (1987). Language files: materials for an introduction to language. Advocate Publishing: Reynoldsburg, Ohio.
Appendix:A
Mad Tea Party
There was a table set out under a tree in front of the house, and the March Hare and the Hatter were having tea at it: a Dormouse was sitting between them, fast asleep, and the other two were using it as a cushion, resting their elbows on it, and the talking over its head. Very uncomfortable for the Dormouse, thought Alice; only, as it's asleep, I suppose it doesn't mind.The table was a large one, but the three were all crowded together at one corner of it: No room! No room! they cried out when they saw Alice coming. There's PLENTY of room! said Alice indignantly, and she sat down in a large arm-chair at one end of the table.Have some wine, the March Hare said in an encouraging tone.Alice looked all round the table, but there was nothing on it but tea. I don't see any wine, she remarked.There isn't any, said the March Hare.Then it wasn't very civil of you to offer it, said Alice angrily.It wasn't very civil of you to sit down without being invited, said the March Hare.I didn't know it was YOUR table, said Alice; it's laid for a great many more than three.Your hair wants cutting, said the Hatter. He had been looking at Alice for some time with great curiosity, and this was his first speech.You should learn not to make personal remarks, Alice said with some severity; it's very rude.The Hatter opened his eyes very wide on hearing this; but all he SAID was, Why is a raven like a writing-desk?Come, we shall have some fun now! thought Alice. I'm glad they've begun asking riddles.--I believe I can guess that, she added aloud.Do you mean that you think you can find out the answer to it? said the March Hare.Exactly so, said Alice.Then you should say what you mean, the March Hare went on.I do, Alice hastily replied; at least--at least I mean what I say--that's the same thing, you know.Not the same thing a bit! said the Hatter. You might just as well say that "I see what I eat" is the same thing as "I eat what I see"!You might just as well say, added the March Hare, that "I like what I get" is the same thing as "I get what I like"!You might just as well say, added the Dormouse, who seemed to be talking in his sleep, that "I breathe when I sleep" is the same thing as "I sleep when I breathe"!It IS the same thing with you, said the Hatter, and here the conversation dropped, and the party sat silent for a minute, while Alice thought over all she could remember about ravens and writing-desks, which wasn't much.The Hatter was the first to break the silence. What day of the month is it? he said, turning to Alice: he had taken his watch out of his pocket, and was looking at it uneasily, shaking it every now and then, and holding it to his ear.Alice considered a little, and then said The fourth.Two days wrong! sighed the Hatter. I told you butter wouldn't suit the works! he added looking angrily at the March Hare.It was the BEST butter, the March Hare meekly replied.Yes, but some crumbs must have got in as well, the Hatter grumbled: you shouldn't have put it in with the bread-knife.The March Hare took the watch and looked at it gloomily: then he dipped it into his cup of tea, and looked at it again: but he could think of nothing better to say than his first remark, It was the BEST butter, you know.Alice had been looking over his shoulder with some curiosity. What a funny watch! she remarked. It tells the day of the month, and doesn't tell what o'clock it is!Why should it? muttered the Hatter. Does YOUR watch tell you what year it is?Of course not, Alice replied very readily: but that's because it stays the same year for such a long time together.Which is just the case with MINE, said the Hatter.Alice felt dreadfully puzzled. The Hatter's remark seemed to have no sort of meaning in it, and yet it was certainly English. I don't quite understand you, she said, as politely as she could.The Dormouse is asleep again, said the Hatter, and he poured a little hot tea upon its nose.The Dormouse shook its head impatiently, and said, without opening its eyes, Of course, of course; just what I was going to remark myself.Have you guessed the riddle yet? the Hatter said, turning to Alice again.No, I give it up, Alice replied: what's the answer?I haven't the slightest idea, said the Hatter.Nor I, said the March Hare.Alice sighed wearily. I think you might do something better with the time, she said, than waste it in asking riddles that have no answers.If you knew Time as well as I do, said the Hatter, you wouldn't talk about wasting IT. It's HIM.I don't know what you mean, said Alice.Of course you don't! the Hatter said, tossing his head contemptuously. I dare say you never even spoke to Time!Perhaps not, Alice cautiously replied: but I know I have to beat time when I learn music.Ah! that accounts for it, said the Hatter. He won't stand beating. Now, if you only kept on good terms with him, he'd do almost anything you liked with the clock. For instance, suppose it were nine o'clock in the morning, just time to begin lessons: you'd only have to whisper a hint to Time, and round goes the clock in a twinkling! Half-past one, time for dinner!(I only wish it was, the March Hare said to itself in a whisper.)That would be grand, certainly, said Alice thoughtfully: but then--I shouldn't be hungry for it, you know.Not at first, perhaps, said the Hatter: but you could keep it to half-past one as long as you liked.Is that the way YOU manage? Alice asked.The Hatter shook his head mournfully. Not I! he replied. We quarrelled last March--just before HE went mad, you know-- (pointing with his tea spoon at the March Hare,) --it was at the great concert given by the Queen of Hearts, and I had to sing"Twinkle, twinkle, little bat!How I wonder what you're at!"You know the song, perhaps?I've heard something like it, said Alice.It goes on, you know, the Hatter continued, in this way:--"Up above the world you fly,Like a tea-tray in the sky.Twinkle, twinkle--"Here the Dormouse shook itself, and began singing in its sleep Twinkle, twinkle, twinkle, twinkle-- and went on so long that they had to pinch it to make it stop.Well, I'd hardly finished the first verse, said the Hatter, when the Queen jumped up and bawled out, "He's murdering the time! Off with his head!"How dreadfully savage! exclaimed Alice.And ever since that, the Hatter went on in a mournful tone, he won't do a thing I ask! It's always six o'clock now.A bright idea came into Alice's head. Is that the reason so many tea-things are put out here? she asked.Yes, that's it, said the Hatter with a sigh: it's always tea-time, and we've no time to wash the things between whiles.Then you keep moving round, I suppose? said Alice.Exactly so, said the Hatter: as the things get used up.But what happens when you come to the beginning again? Alice ventured to ask.Suppose we change the subject, the March Hare interrupted, yawning. I'm getting tired of this. I vote the young lady tells us a story.I'm afraid I don't know one, said Alice, rather alarmed at the proposal.Then the Dormouse shall! they both cried. Wake up, Dormouse! And they pinched it on both sides at once.The Dormouse slowly opened his eyes. I wasn't asleep, he said in a hoarse, feeble voice: I heard every word you fellows were saying.Tell us a story! said the March Hare.Yes, please do! pleaded Alice.And be quick about it, added the Hatter, or you'll be asleep again before it's done.Once upon a time there were three little sisters, the Dormouse began in a great hurry; and their names were Elsie, Lacie, and Tillie; and they lived at the bottom of a well--What did they live on? said Alice, who always took a great interest in questions of eating and drinking.They lived on treacle, said the Dormouse, after thinking a minute or two.They couldn't have done that, you know, Alice gently remarked; they'd have been ill.So they were, said the Dormouse; VERY ill.Alice tried to fancy to herself what such an extraordinary ways of living would be like, but it puzzled her too much, so she went on: But why did they live at the bottom of a well?Take some more tea, the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly.I've had nothing yet, Alice replied in an offended tone, so I can't take more.You mean you can't take LESS, said the Hatter: it's very easy to take MORE than nothing.Nobody asked YOUR opinion, said Alice.Who's making personal remarks now? the Hatter asked triumphantly.Alice did not quite know what to say to this: so she helped herself to some tea and bread-and-butter, and then turned to the Dormouse, and repeated her question. Why did they live at the bottom of a well?The Dormouse again took a minute or two to think about it, and then said, It was a treacle-well.There's no such thing! Alice was beginning very angrily, but the Hatter and the March Hare went Sh! sh! and the Dormouse sulkily remarked, If you can't be civil, you'd better finish the story for yourself.No, please go on! Alice said very humbly; I won't interrupt again. I dare say there may be ONE.One, indeed! said the Dormouse indignantly. However, he consented to go on. And so these three little sisters--they were learning to draw, you know--What did they draw? said Alice, quite forgetting her promise.Treacle, said the Dormouse, without considering at all this time.I want a clean cup, interrupted the Hatter: let's all move one place on.He moved on as he spoke, and the Dormouse followed him: the March Hare moved into the Dormouse's place, and Alice rather unwillingly took the place of the March Hare. The Hatter was the only one who got any advantage from the change: and Alice was a good deal worse off than before, as the March Hare had just upset the milk-jug into his plate.Alice did not wish to offend the Dormouse again, so she began very cautiously: But I don't understand. Where did they draw the treacle from?You can draw water out of a water-well, said the Hatter; so I should think you could draw treacle out of a treacle-well--eh, stupid?But they were IN the well, Alice said to the Dormouse, not choosing to notice this last remark.Of course they were, said the Dormouse; --well in.This answer so confused poor Alice, that she let the Dormouse go on for some time without interrupting it.They were learning to draw, the Dormouse went on, yawning and rubbing its eyes, for it was getting very sleepy; and they drew all manner of things--everything that begins with an M--Why with an M? said Alice.Why not? said the March Hare.Alice was silent.The Dormouse had closed its eyes by this time, and was going off into a doze; but, on being pinched by the Hatter, it woke up again with a little shriek, and went on: --that begins with an M, such as mouse-traps, and the moon, and memory, and muchness-- you know you say things are "much of a muchness"--did you ever see such a thing as a drawing of a muchness?Really, now you ask me, said Alice, very much confused, I don't think--Then you shouldn't talk, said the Hatter.This piece of rudeness was more than Alice could bear: she got up in great disgust, and walked off; the Dormouse fell asleep instantly, and neither of the others took the least notice of her going, though she looked back once or twice, half hoping that they would call after her: the last time she saw them, they were trying to put the Dormouse into the teapot.At any rate I'll never go THERE again! said Alice as she picked her way through the wood. It's the stupidest tea-party I ever was at in all my life!Just as she said this, she noticed that one of the trees had a door leading right into it. That's very curious! she thought. But everything's curious today. I think I may as well go in at once. And in she went.Once more she found herself in the long hall, and close to the little glass table. Now, I'll manage better this time, she said to herself, and began by taking the little golden key, and unlocking the door that led into the garden. Then she went to work nibbling at the mushroom (she had kept a piece of it in her pocked) till she was about a foot high: then she walked down the little passage: and THEN--she found herself at last in the beautiful garden, among the bright flower-beds and the cool fountains.
Taken From Alice In Wonderland by Lewis Carroll
